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拍品專文
The ancient region of Gandhara, straddling the Khyber Pass in what is now eastern Afghanistan and western Pakistan, was for centuries an important center of trade and commerce. Its position at the crossroads of Central Asia meant that it was exposed to the goods and ideas from India, China, and the Mediterranean world. In the centuries before the beginning of the Common Era, the region came under Hellenistic control after Alexander the Great annexed Gandhara to his expansive empire; following his death, the region was controlled by a succession of kings of mixed Greek and Central Asian descent. Buddhism was already well established during this time, with the Indo-Greek King Menander and the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka both noted proponents of the faith.
It was not until the reign of the Kushans in the first centuries CE, however, that profound changes in the religious art of the region were realized. The Kushans were nomadic horsemen from the steppes of Central Asia. Sometime around 160 BCE, they were pushed out of their homeland in Western China, and after more than a century of migration ended up seizing power in the regions of Gandhara and Northern India. Astute rulers, the Kushans allowed religious freedom for their subjects and adopted local Hellenistic and Indian traditions, including the Buddhist faith. Prior to their rule, the presence of Buddha was depicted in art through conspicuous symbols such as the dharmachakra (wheel of law) or his footprints; upon their ascension to power, however, the first images of Buddha in anthropomorphic form began to appear.
In Gandhara, the sculptural tradition was still heavily influenced by the earlier Hellenistic style. Local artisans favored the principles of figural naturalism, in particular the athletic and heroic idealized body. The depiction of the Indian dhoti and sanghati, like that of the Greek chiton and himation, offered the artisans an opportunity to reproduce voluminous folds of drapery with wondrous aplomb, as is evident in the present work. The deeply carved locks of curly hair are a further indication of the artisan's sculptural élan.
Stylistically, the present sculpture corresponds with a smaller figure at the Lahore Museum, identified as Siddhartha (H. Ingholt, Gandharan Art in Pakistan, New York, 1957, p. 132, cat. no. 282) or more broadly as a bodhisattva (C. Luczanits, The Buddhist Heritage of Pakistan: Art of Gandhara, New York, 2011, p. 157, cat. no. 63). The Siddhartha appellation is based on his youthful appearance, with the cascading locks of hair and vestments of a prince, and represents the period of his life before he relinquished his worldly goods and became Buddha, the Enlightened One.
Either identification illustrates a shift in Buddhist religious focus during this period. While the life of the Gautama Buddha was still venerated, and there are numerous extant sculptures of Buddha from Gandhara, there was also a growing interest in bodhisattva figures. As the religion developed in the centuries after Buddha's death, an increasing number of deities with a variety of functions were incorporated. Bodhisattvas are those who have achieved enlightenment but forgo nirvana (the escape from rebirth) to serve as guides for all sentient beings. In the Gandharan period, the most important of these figures were Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of compassion, and Maitreya, the Buddha of the Future. Each had defined iconography, and would likely have been worshipped alongside images of Buddha himself: Avalokiteshvara is distinguished by the flower he holds in his hand and usually wears a turban, while Maitreya holds a water pot. The presence of a small support just below the left arm in the present figure indicates the figure would have held an identifying attribute, and in conjunction with the hairstyle and lack of a headdress, it is likely the figure represents Maitreya.
As the Buddha of the Future, Maitreya will descend from the Tushita Heaven to be born in our realm when the dharma is forgotten. His iconic water vessel, the kumbha, is found in many different contexts within Indian sculpture, but is almost always a symbol of fertility and life. It is an apt visual icon, therefore, for Maitreya's role as a progenitor of future peace and order.
It was not until the reign of the Kushans in the first centuries CE, however, that profound changes in the religious art of the region were realized. The Kushans were nomadic horsemen from the steppes of Central Asia. Sometime around 160 BCE, they were pushed out of their homeland in Western China, and after more than a century of migration ended up seizing power in the regions of Gandhara and Northern India. Astute rulers, the Kushans allowed religious freedom for their subjects and adopted local Hellenistic and Indian traditions, including the Buddhist faith. Prior to their rule, the presence of Buddha was depicted in art through conspicuous symbols such as the dharmachakra (wheel of law) or his footprints; upon their ascension to power, however, the first images of Buddha in anthropomorphic form began to appear.
In Gandhara, the sculptural tradition was still heavily influenced by the earlier Hellenistic style. Local artisans favored the principles of figural naturalism, in particular the athletic and heroic idealized body. The depiction of the Indian dhoti and sanghati, like that of the Greek chiton and himation, offered the artisans an opportunity to reproduce voluminous folds of drapery with wondrous aplomb, as is evident in the present work. The deeply carved locks of curly hair are a further indication of the artisan's sculptural élan.
Stylistically, the present sculpture corresponds with a smaller figure at the Lahore Museum, identified as Siddhartha (H. Ingholt, Gandharan Art in Pakistan, New York, 1957, p. 132, cat. no. 282) or more broadly as a bodhisattva (C. Luczanits, The Buddhist Heritage of Pakistan: Art of Gandhara, New York, 2011, p. 157, cat. no. 63). The Siddhartha appellation is based on his youthful appearance, with the cascading locks of hair and vestments of a prince, and represents the period of his life before he relinquished his worldly goods and became Buddha, the Enlightened One.
Either identification illustrates a shift in Buddhist religious focus during this period. While the life of the Gautama Buddha was still venerated, and there are numerous extant sculptures of Buddha from Gandhara, there was also a growing interest in bodhisattva figures. As the religion developed in the centuries after Buddha's death, an increasing number of deities with a variety of functions were incorporated. Bodhisattvas are those who have achieved enlightenment but forgo nirvana (the escape from rebirth) to serve as guides for all sentient beings. In the Gandharan period, the most important of these figures were Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of compassion, and Maitreya, the Buddha of the Future. Each had defined iconography, and would likely have been worshipped alongside images of Buddha himself: Avalokiteshvara is distinguished by the flower he holds in his hand and usually wears a turban, while Maitreya holds a water pot. The presence of a small support just below the left arm in the present figure indicates the figure would have held an identifying attribute, and in conjunction with the hairstyle and lack of a headdress, it is likely the figure represents Maitreya.
As the Buddha of the Future, Maitreya will descend from the Tushita Heaven to be born in our realm when the dharma is forgotten. His iconic water vessel, the kumbha, is found in many different contexts within Indian sculpture, but is almost always a symbol of fertility and life. It is an apt visual icon, therefore, for Maitreya's role as a progenitor of future peace and order.